German Air Force Unveils Powerful Spy Plane



the German air force unveiled the latest addition to its fleet: the "Euro Hawk," a state-of-the-art spy drone. The reconnaissance aircraft can fly non-stop for 30 hours in the stratosphere without having to refuel and its on-board sensors can penetrate clouds and sandstorms.

After 10 years of planning and development, the Bundeswehr on Wednesday publicly unveiled its most recent acquisition of next-generation reconnaissance technology: a powerful new drone designed to bolster its surveillance capabilities on the battle field. The deployment in 2012 of the "Euro Hawk" is expected to launch a new era for Germany's armed forces.

The unmanned drone is similar to the spy plane introduced a decade ago in the United States military, the "Global Hawk," but with European modifications, Lieutenant Colonel Holger Neumann, a Luftwaffe spokesman, told SPIEGEL ONLINE. Both models are strictly used for surveillance purposes.

Although their plane may look like a clone of its American counterpart and includes much of the same technology, defense contractor Cassidian, a subsidiary of the European aerospace giant EADS, is equipping the aircraft with German-engineered sensors and surveillance equipment before delivering the final Euro Hawks to the Bundeswehr.

The drone will be able detect potential targets on the ground while simultaneously eavesdropping on wireless communications from cruising altitudes of up to 60,000 feet (18,288 meters) -- well above that of any commercial airliners, which generally fly at 30,000-40,000 feet. It is also designed to eavesdrop on telephone calls and text messages and to pick up radio and TV signals, among other data. That information is then transmitted in real-time to a control center on the ground in Germany. The on-board sensors are powerful enough to penetrate heavy cloud covering and sandstorms to capture signals.

A 'Vacuum Cleaner for Information'

Some have dubbed the machine a "huge vacuum cleaner for information," while others, like Rüdiger Knöpfel, the director of the German military's Euro Hawk program at the Federal Office for Defense Technology and Procurement, called the move a "milestone" in the history of the country's armed forces. The Euro Hawk is expected to far surpass the capabilities of Germany's existing unmanned aircraft. Reconnaissance is a core challenge for armed forces, Knöpfel said, and "currently we are deaf when it comes to electronic reconnaissance." That could change with the deployment of Euro Hawk.

The drone's technical details alone are impressive. The unmanned aircraft weighs 15 tons and is built of carbon fiber. It is 14.5 meters long and has a wing span of around 40 meters (131 feet). It can travel up to 25,000 kilometers non-stop, meaning it could fly from Berlin to Tokyo and back without having to land. But that's only one example. The drone's real future area of deployment is likely to be in war and crisis regions like Afghanistan, where the Bundeswehr is deployed.

Although the aircraft components for the first prototype were officially completed in 2009, the Euro Hawk didn't take off for its maiden journey until June 29, 2010. It was produced in California by Northrop Grumman, the American contractor that manufactures the drone and has created a joint venture with EADS to build the European version. Finally, on July 21, 2001, a prototype of the machine landed at the Luftwaffe air force base in Manching, Germany, after flying more than 10,000 kilometers (6,213 miles) in a 24 hour-long "hand-off" flight, during which American and German operators observed the drone's progress from ground control installations in their respective countries.

By next summer, the Luftwaffe is expected to begin operations with the drone as it carries out reconnaissance missions. Eleven German pilots have already received training in the United States. In total, the Bundeswehr plans to acquire a fleet of five Euro Hawks.

Retrieved from: http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,791419,00.html

Canadian Fighter Aircrafts (Characteristics And Roles)

Fighter aircraft are the watchdogs of our sovereignty. They are primarily designed to safeguard our airspace so friendly forces – both military and civilian – can freely use the area thus protected. Not only are fighters the best tool that a military force has at its disposal to accomplish this task, fighters, because of their strong ability to “act”, also represent a strong deterrent to any threat that might potentially enter the airspace – domestic or deployed. As no other weapons platform is yet available or mature enough to provide the range of capabilities that fighters provide, Canada will continue to need fighters and their pilots for at least another generation of aircraft.

“If we lose the war in the air, we lose the war and we lose it quickly." Bernard Law Montgomery

What is a fighter?

Fighter aircraft are designed primarily to ensure control of essential airspace and deny opponents the use of that airspace. They are light, manoeuverable, capable of flying for long distances, rapidly deployable, capable of reacting quickly, identifying targets and taking action, if required, against an air, sea or ground target. They are generally the fastest aircraft employed for combat operations.

Fighters are also capable of carrying out aerial reconnaissance and surveillance – again rapidly and across huge distances.They may be armed with guided and unguided bombs, air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, and cannons. They are also built with high structural strength to withstand the tremendous gravitational (“G”) forces they undergo while manoeuvring abruptly during, for example, aerial combat.

Fighters are equipped with systems and sensors that permit missions to be conducted by day or by night and in good or bad weather conditions.

Fundamentally, control of airspace means denying an opponent the use of the airspace, which may culminate in destroying enemy aircraft during air-to-air combat. Fighters are the only aircraft capable of carrying out this task. However, over the years, due to their inherent flexibility, fighters have been increasingly armed with bombs and other air-to-surface armament and used as fighter-bombers. Therefore, many fighters are dual- or multi-role capable and are referred to as fighter-bombers. 

The CF-18 Hornet, Canada’s current fighter, is considered a “multi-role” fighter capable of both air-to-air and air-to-surface attacks. The CF-18, which will reach the end of its lifespan by the end of this decade, was our first true multi-role fighter and is currently our only fighter. As such, it is the only aircraft we possess to carry out…

• defensive air missions: denying others access to our airspace, through detecting, identifying, intercepting, and destroying or otherwise making ineffective forces that are attempting to attack or to penetrate our airspace.
• offensive air missions: destroying, degrading or disrupting an opponent’s air power as close to its source as possible. 
• close air support missions: supporting and protecting our troops through air action against opponents that are in close proximity to our troops; the action needs to be closely coordinated with the fire and movement of our forces.
• strike missions: attacking an opponent’s key targets from short or long range to destroy or damage them.

The history

As the First World War opened, aircraft were used for reconnaissance, that is, to provide situational awareness to the commander of army troops. Observers flying in aircraft could see deep behind enemy lines, thereby providing a major tactical advantage. However, aircraft use rapidly evolved as each side sought to deny its enemy the ability to conduct this aerial reconnaissance.

Observer aircraft were fitted with weapons to attack enemy scout planes and to defend themselves, leading to the birth of fighter aircraft; air-to-air combat quickly evolved, becoming the aerial “dog-fights” of history, legend and film. Whoever controlled the airspace above a particular sector could use the area below with greater effectiveness.

By the Second World War, aerial combat formed an important part of military doctrine. For example, the German Luftwaffe sought to establish air superiority over the English Channel in order to protect German landing craft during Operation Sea Lion – the planned invasion of England in late 1940. However, Royal Air Force and Royal Canadian Air Force fighters (flown by pilots from the U.K., Canada and several other countries) took to the air daily, holding back the German air forces and denying them control of the airspace during what has gone down in history as the Battle of Britain. Because the Luftwaffe could not establish air superiority over the Channel, Hitler cancelled Operation Sea Lion and the invasion of England was never again considered seriously by the Nazi régime.

By late 1944, Germany had effectively lost control of its skies with disastrous outcomes for their land forces.

Fighters were flown with great effect during the Korean War, fought under the aegis of the United Nations. Twenty-two Canadians, on exchange postings with the U.S. Air Force, were among those who flew fighter aircraft in the conflict. 

It was the first true jet fighter conflict, and jet air power set the scene for other aspects of the conflict.

“We achieved absolute air superiority in Korea…. The Chinese said afterwards that they would have gone over us like a steamroller if it hadn’t been for Allied air power.”

- Squadron Leader Omer Levesque

Since Korea, Canada and our Allies have used fighters to great advantage in many conflicts, including the First Gulf War (action to counter the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1991) and Second Gulf War (the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003), the Kosovo campaign, and in Afghanistan.

In 1991 Canada sent 24 CF-18s to Qatar to participate in the American-led Gulf War to thwart the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Coalition forces flew more than 1,000 sorties a day and, as a result of the coalition’s undisputed air supremacy, the ground invasion of Kuwait and elimination of Iraqi forces in Kuwait took only 100 hours – a triumph due largely to the success of the air campaign.

Participation in NATO’s air operation in airspace over Serbia and nearby regions in 1999 (the Kosovo campaign) was one of the most significant offensive combat air campaigns undertaken by the Canadian Forces since the Second World War. Eighteen CF-18s were deployed. The primary objective of the campaign was to compel Serbia to cease military operations that had produced a humanitarian catastrophe in Kosovo. Air power alone led to the desired outcome without the need for ground-based intervention. 

The mission of the Canadian Forces

The Department of National Defence and the Canadian Forces play a key role in defending Canadian sovereignty and keeping Canadians safe and secure. To this end, the Canada First Defence Strategy gives clear direction to the Canadian Forces concerning its three roles: defend Canada, be a strong and reliable partner in the defence of North America, and project leadership abroad by contributing to international peace and security.

The Canadian Forces must therefore be a flexible and multi-role military, capable of responding to a broad range of threats to our security and prosperity. To deliver on this wide range of missions, the Canadian Forces employ multiple capabilities at sea, on land and in the air.

One of the most important capabilities in the air continues to be fighter aircraft.  

At home and in North America, Canadian fighters operate through NORAD to ensure both sovereignty and air defence of the airspace of Canada and the United States. NORAD aircraft are prepared to respond to any potential threat to North America, every hour of every day, and they conduct approximately 200 such precautionary intercepts each year.

Canada is also committed to providing fighter aircraft in support of NATO if required. On a rotational basis, Canada commits its fighters to the NATO Response Force (NRF), a robust and credible high readiness force that can quickly deploy in support of the full spectrum of NATO missions. In the past, our fighters have deployed to contribute vital air power as part of multi-national operations, as they did during the First Gulf War and the Kosovo campaign in the 1990s.  

Fighters perform several critical and unique functions that enable the Canadian Forces to defend and control the skies above Canada and elsewhere as required. These functions include the interception and engagement of targets, the capability to oppose a threat and impose our will (essentially air superiority) and deterrence. These are vital in both international (expeditionary) and national (domestic) theatres of operation.

The need for air superiority

Air superiority is ”that degree of dominance of the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force."

Canadian Forces Aerospace Doctrine

Fighters have evolved throughout the years, but the basic principle of their use remains the same: ensuring air superiority.

Air superiority wins wars; once a force controls the airspace, the force can operate with impunity – whether that is to conduct other air operations (e.g., airlift, transportation, observation), naval operations, land operations, conduct shipping, build up reserve forces, and so on. We saw this result in all conflicts in the latter part of the 20^th century and in the opening years of the 21^st.

Control of airspace – air superiority – saves friendly lives, and fighters are the most feasible way to ensure successful military operations. Without air superiority, a force will always be vulnerable to attack by enemy air power and will suffer enormous casualties. That is why modern military powers have fighter aircraft. 

The need for deterrence

The use of fighters in war fighting to achieve air superiority is fairly self-evident. However, another key question is “why would we employ fighters within Canada?” when we are not at war inside our borders.

The key role that fighters currently undertake within our borders is deterrence.

 “The Art of War teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s not coming, but on our own readiness to receive him;     not on the chance of his not attacking but rather on the fact that   we have made our position unassailable.”

The end of the Cold War triggered unique challenges in the world and made for a more complex international security environment.  

Since the tragedy of 9/11, many nations have changed and renewed the emphasis with regards to security within their own borders.  Although the United States experienced the worst of the attacks committed by the al-Qaeda terrorist network, other nations are vulnerable to similar attacks. 

Although relatively isolated geographically, Canada remains at risk to aggression from those who have the capability and will to inflict harm.  As an ally, neighbour and trading partner of the United States, as well as a sovereign nation, Canada cannot ignore the potential threats of terrorist, criminal or otherwise malicious activity to herself or to the United States.

Although the threat from state actors has abated since the end of the Cold War, the risk posed by the proliferation of and access to high technology, as well as sales of advanced weapons systems to a wide range of organizations, will create increased risk at home and abroad.

The potential costs of not acting far outweigh the costs of doing what is necessary.  Therefore, if a nation or a group of nations decide to fight a threat, they need to have the proper capabilities to carry out and win the fight.

Fighters, by their very nature, possess these capabilities and are a strong deterrence to aggression by terrorist factions or other threats to our citizens and our sovereignty. Fighters send the clear message “this is our airspace”, often simply through presence rather than combat.

“The best defence of the country is fear of the fighter."

- Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding

The first aspect of deterrence is awareness. A nation must be aware of and alert to what’s going on inside and outside its borders to be able to react. If a nation doesn’t have situational awareness of what is happening nationally and, when necessary, internationally, there is a strong likelihood of surprise – and negative outcomes. Fighters, possessing agility, speed and a wide range of sensors, allow a sovereign nation to extend its awareness to its boundaries or other desired range.

The second aspect of deterrence is the ability to act, that is, the function of integrating manoeuvrability, firepower and information to achieve desired results, against a threat. It also includes the capability of “force projection”, the timely deployment of military forces to provide presence or influence for an operation, wherever and whenever needed.

To act, a nation must, first and foremost, possess the credible tools to thwart an attack and make the risks too high for the attacking force.  A nation must have sufficient ability to react to a threat to ensure that those who might consider offensive action will reconsider their choices.

A nation must also establish a suitable degree of readiness, which requires a mix of the right people, with the right training at the right time with the right equipment. Canada’s Air Force focuses very strongly on ensuring all these aspects of readiness are in place.

Finally, a third aspect of deterrence is will – the willingness of a nation to use the resources available to take action against threats.  And the will to act must be clearly evident to those who would threaten the nation.

Linked with deterrence is the concept of sovereignty.

"State sovereignty denotes the competence, independence, and legal equality of states…[It] encompass all matters in which each state is permitted by international law to decide and act without intrusions from other sovereign states [including] the choice of political, economic, social, and cultural systems
and the formulation of foreign policy."

The protection of Canadian sovereignty is the Canadian Forces’ most important mission; our national sovereignty is enhanced by our fighters’ deterrence capability – their ability to acquire, intercept and engage sea, land and air targets outside or within Canadian airspace.

We cannot rely on another nation to protect our sovereignty. Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the Canadian fighter force has been heavily committed to the protection of Canada through NORAD. Immediately following the attacks, armed CF-18s on air sovereignty alert deployed across Canada to protect Canadians from threats that might have originated within Canadian airspace or from offshore, a task that continues to this day.

More recently, fighters were employed to help ensure Canadian security and sovereignty during the 2010 Vancouver Olympic/Paralympic Games and the 2010 G8/G20 Summits.

It’s not uncommon for fighters to intercept trans-oceanic flights that are off track, have lost communication abilities or have been identified as security risks. In some cases, these aircraft are escorted to and required to land at specific locations to reduce the threat of potential terrorist action. And in the North,
CF-18s fly sovereignty missions, clearly signalling Canadian control of our arctic region and occasionally intercepting foreign aircraft approaching our airspace.

Other options?

Some might ask “why not employ unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or surface-to-air missiles to carry out the air superiority role?”

Manned fighters are the only weapons platform in existence right now that allows a nation to exercise full control of its airspace. In the future, potentially, unmanned technology might mature to the point where this becomes an option. But this won’t be a feasible solution for several decades – at best.

Although UAVs can currently be armed with some air-to-surface capability, they cannot yet replace fighters entirely, especially in the air-to-air role. The technology, research and development of unmanned air combat air vehicles have not sufficiently matured to consider their use in the roles currently undertaken by fighters for at least another generation of manned aircraft. For now, UAVs are essentially a single mission platform, easy to attack and remove, and therefore vulnerable in a non-permissive environment. They still require air superiority (by manned fighters) to operate within the designated airspace or accept that they may be lost in the course of their missions. 

Ground-based defences (e.g., surface-to-air missiles) can protect specific sites against enemy aircraft, but they are limited by their single function, their range and their mobility. They simply are not flexible enough for Canada’s vast distances and face mobility limitations for both domestic and international employment. However, when used in conjunction with fighters, they provide a significant deterrent to potential adversaries.

The future

“Canadians live in a world characterized by volatility and unpredictability… [W]e live in an uncertain world, and the security challenges facing Canada are real."

- Canada First Defence Strategy

The battle space of the future will be global in scope, and we will need to ensure we are interoperable with our Allies in order to counter these global threats. Advanced military technology, including weapons of mass destruction and their delivery systems, and many of the systems emerging today will proliferate widely among states and also among dangerous non-state actors. 

Not only will the use of technology spread globally, it will develop and improve in ways that we may not even be able to predict at this time. The technological advances of this century will build upon the current advances in sensors, stealth (low radar signature) capabilities, precision weapons targeting, networked-enabled operations, satellite communications, more massive, rapid and complete flow of data and more. Taken individually or as a whole, these changing conditions will make any future operating environment complex, dangerous and hard to predict.

Domestically, over the foreseeable future, the Canadian Forces will be expected to exercise Canadian sovereignty and perform a wide range of tasks not readily carried out by any other organization on short notice – such as protecting Canada and performing expeditionary tasks in concert with Allies. 

Within this context, fighters “help the military defend the sovereignty of Canadian airspace, remain a strong and reliable partner in the Defence of North America through NORAD, and provide Canada with an effective and modern air capability for international operations”. 

A multi-role fighter capability is thus a fundamental element of the “system of systems” required to meet Canada’s requirements.

“The only security upon which sound military principles will rely is that you should be master of your own air." Sir Winston Churchill.

Retrieved from: http://www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/v2/page-eng.asp?id=1437

Ancient History (Indian Army)

The distinguished history of Indian Army dates back more than ten thousand years. The two grand epics of ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ constitute the fundamental framework around which the edifice of Indian Army is built. The massive war ‘Mahabharata’, fought at Kurukshetra in north-central India, has left indelible imprints on the Indian psyche. Fought relentlessly for eighteen days in the quest of peace, the force level described in the Epic states 18 ‘Akshaunis’, seven with the ‘Pandavas’ and eleven with the ‘Kauravas’, amounting to nearly 400,000 assorted troops fighting on chariots, horses, elephants and foot soldiers.

Though innumerable wars have been fought thereafter, most were in quest of universal peace and ‘dharma’. Recourse to arms was only taken when peace was threatened. In fact the word 'peace' forms the very core of Indian philosophy, which can most aptly be traced to one of India's ancient scriptures known as the ‘Yajurveda’. It is stated in verse, the English translation of which reads - “May the sky be peaceful; may the atmosphere be peaceful; may the earth be peaceful; may eternal peace cometh upon us”.

The archaeological history of India dates back to more than 2500 BC, when an urbanised civilisation known as the Indus Valley Civilisation flourished along the banks of River Indus, in the alluvial north - western plains. Similar findings like the coastal cities of Lothal and Dwarka came to light more recently along the coast of Gujarat. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation’s two urban centres at Mohenjodaro and Harappa gradually declined in the second millennium BC, and almost completely disintegrated around 1500 BC due to ecological reasons like drying up of rivers and drought. The coastal cities disintegrated due to massive floods.

Due to the gradual extinction of such civilizations, the north-western invasion route through the Hindu Kush Mountains remained unguarded for centuries, and gradually many people and tribes managed to cross over for better economic prospects.?With many recent landmark findings refuting the invasion of Asian-European people, or the Aryans, into the Indian sub continent en masse, the military history of India dates back to 6th century BC, encompassing the period when some of the more belligerent forces like the Persians, Greeks, the Turks, Huns, Mongols and so on crossed over into the more fertile and alluvial plains of India from the north-western route.

Though scanty details are available of the early conflicts between the invading forces, evidence shows that some of the invaders did manage to slowly overrun western India and consolidated their hold along the Indo - Gangetic plains, and in the process subdued numerous native tribal kingdoms through pitched battles. Their advance further south was generally halted by the jungle covered Vindhya Mountains. Those apart, certain areas along the western coast and the Deccan plateau were hilly and sparse – unsuitable for the movements of considerable bodies of people. However, this vast area also lent itself favourably to resistance against invasion by loose fighting warriors, such as the Marathas who subsequently became a force to reckon with. The other major pre-condition of war in India was and continues to be the climate. Monsoon rains between June and September rendered movement of armies virtually impossible. The best season for campaigning was always October and November, when the corps were ripe, the herbage green and it was possible to live off the country.

Between foreign invasions, wars in the north became a sport of kings and noblemen, and rarely become a national struggle for existence save when a new invader from the northwest entered the fray.

The armies of the native tribes were made up mostly of foot-soldiers, later come to be known as the infantry. The bow and arrow were their principal weapons. Cavalry was non-existent as horses were scare. Around 537 BC Cyrus of Persia reached the region of modern Peshawar, and his successor Darius conquered part of north-western Punjab. Their invasions brought home to the Indians the importance and utility of cavalry, however Indian climate conditions were not conducive for the breeding of good horses, and therefore reserved for pulling the war chariots of kings and nobles. So the infantry continued to be relied upon as the decisive weapon of war. Warriors were the most honoured and leading classes of society.

Wars usually had limited objectives and were fought for the most part with far less savagery than elsewhere in the world. Rarely did the locals indulge in mass slaughter after a victory. Such chivalrous and rather ritualistic conduct of war made conquest by less punctilious invaders rather easy.

The first definitely recorded fact in Indian political history is the invasion by the Greeks under Alexander the Great during 327-6 BC. After crossing the Hindu Kush Mountains, Alexander captured the city of Taxila and defeated India’s King Porus at the battle of the Jhelum, or Hydespes as referred to by the Greeks. Chariots were still a considerable force in the army under Porus, these being made of wooden struts bound together with leather thongs, and drawn by two horses. Each chariot had a driver and a bowman. Some heavier chariots had four horses and carried upto six men, of whom two were shield-bearers, two were archers and two were drivers who also functioned as javelin throwers during the battle. The chariots at Jhelum did not fare well, getting stuck in the mud. King Porus himself had come to battle mounted on an elephant. Invaders like Alexander, who came to conquer India, appreciated and adopted local military customs, and even its civilian culture. New kingdoms and a few alliances were soon formed, but these proved to be woefully inadequate against yet more foreign invaders.

Wars were most prominent in the politics and literature of ancient India. Occasionally great kings like Chandragupta Maurya succeeded in subduing and unifying most of the people of India. Manuals of statecraft such as the ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya, relating to the period 300 BC to 100 AD, indicate the prominence of war as an instrument of state policy. The ‘Arthashastra’ is one of the most significant documents of military history ever to be written. It is an exhaustive treatise on the early concepts of government, law and war. Its military section cover the composition and structure of armies, the role and function of the arms and services, training concepts and methods, duties of various military functionaries, strategic and tactical concepts, defensive fortifications, leadership and management of large armies.

Under Chandragupta Maurya, Central Asian invaders like the Huns, who in their days had razed and plundered a major portion of the known civilized world, were to stand checked. Chandragupta defeated the remnants of the Macedonians and established the first great dynasty, the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta added to the extent of the empire, and he was the first to maintain a large, permanent standing army. Bindhusara expanded the empire and Ashoka brought the Mauryan Empire to the height of its power and glory. The Kalinga war proved to be the turning point of his life. It was after this, Ashoka renounced the sword and took to Buddhism, which he spread far and wide through his disciples and emissaries.

It was during this period that war elephants made an appearance on battlefields and they continued to be used by Indian warriors, right unto the seventeenth century. Although the Mauryan standing army was based on infantry, it had a force of 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 elephants. The cavalry was well trained and was employed to attack from a flank, and for exploiting captured positions. During advance they protected the front, flanks and rear. In defence they were held in reserve and were used to harass the attacking forces and to pursue them when enemy offensive was defeated. The principal weapon used with the elephant was the bow and arrow, supplemented with javelins and spears.

After peace was restored by the Mauryan Empire, the pacifist culture accompanied the spread of Buddhism from India to Afghanistan, Tibet, Burma, China, Indo China, Japan and the Indonesian archipelago, had a greater moral bias and preached non-violence. This kind of spiritual ‘conquest’ lacked any territorial cohesion and political unity to oppose concerted invasions from the vulnerable north-west.

The ‘Golden Age’ of The Gupta Empire was restored between 320-550 AD. The most significant achievements of this period were in the fields of religion, education, mathematics, science, the arts, Vedic and Sanskrit literature and the theatre. Harshavardhana managed to restore India’s glory and North India was reunited once again. The many years of peace and prosperity began to feel the strain in 1000 AD and the Indian civilization became complacent. Thus leading to another great chapter in Indian ancient history, the arrival of Islamic invaders.

While Northern India now contended with a new chapter of foreign powers, The Cholas, in Southern India projected their regional military might between 985-1054 AD. Naval ships sailed out from the Coromandal coast, along the eastern Indian peninsula to Sri Lanka and directly to the Malayan peninsula, Jawa, Sumatra and Borneo. Thereafter Chola Kings extended their hold further eastward to Thailand and Vietnam. These conquests were more trade based, and reflected the spread of Hindu culture rather than conquest by the sword. In due course Indian arts, cultural and religious influences spread to these countries where they have survive till date.

Coming back to the north, the Turkish conquest of India developed in a definite pattern. It was a gradual process that began in the tenth century. Turks would begin by conducting raids across the frontier. These developed into invasions during which the nearest Indian King was defeated in pitched battle. The first conquest was used as a springboard for the next one. The process went on into the seventeenth century when the tribesmen of the thick Assam jungles halted the invading forces.

Retrieved from: http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=r8ScE+/D5SNyrC2M0qB2hg==&ParentID=iheGzF706hhujbFbQKWX9Q

Russian Military

 

Turkish Air Force

The Turkish Air Force is one of the oldest air forces in the world and operates one of the largest combat aircraft fleets of NATO. Supported by the TuAF's in-flight refueling capability, the fighter jets of the Turkish Air Force can participate in international operations and exercises on every major continent and return back to their home bases.

The Turkish Air Force has a vivid and honorable history. The Turkish military first encountered hostile military aircraft in 1911 when Italy invaded Libya, at that time part of the Ottoman Empire. Italian aircraft performed reconnaissance and bombing missions against the Ottoman Army. Ottoman forces, however, had the honor of being the first to force down a warplane and capture the pilot.

Earlier that year, the Turkish Minister of War directed establishment of an aircraft commission in Istanbul. The first airfield was near Istanbul and is now Ataturk International Airport. Two hangars were built, and training on and purchase of French, German and British aircraft began.

The fledgling TAF saw action in the Balkan War in September 1912 to October 1913, with only 17 aircraft, which primarily flew reconnaissance. In 1914, the first U.S. aircraft, a Curtiss seaplane, was sold to Turkey. Soon, however, Europe would be embroiled in the Great War. At the beginning of the war, Turkey had only five aircraft and six pilots. With the help of German and Austrian allies, the TAF expanded to 450 aircraft, many piloted by Germans.

At the war's end, Turkey had almost 100 pilots and 17 land-based and three seaplane companies of four aircraft each. During the conflict, Turkish and German pilots had considerable success, sinking several British ships in the Aegean and destroying numerous British, French and Russian aircraft. Following the Armistice, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled, and most of the Army, including the air forces, disarmed.

Western powers moved to occupy many of the regions of Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk, rallied forces against the invaders. In 1919, at the beginning of the national struggle, the Turks had no aircraft. In March 1920, the TAF was reestablished when pilots and others met to assemble aircraft from smuggled parts. Soon there were 17 aircraft, a mixture of Albatros, Breguet, Fiat, De Havilland and Spad models, which made limited strikes and conducted reconnaissance.

When the War of Independence ended in 1922, the Air Force had grown to a group consisting of companies at Izmir, Afyon and Bandirma. In 1928, an Air Ministry was established with three battalions raised to regiment level in 1932, and brigade level in 1939. The three main bases were Eskisehir, Diyarbakir and Izmir.

Before World War II, an aircraft factory was built to build American Curtiss Hawk fighters and Turkey purchased Polish PZL and French Morane fighter planes. The Turks also acquired a number of bombers - German Heinkels, British Blenheims and American Martins and Vultees. Turkey remained neutral until the final days of World War II. As a result, the TAF obtained aircraft from axis and allied powers. They even acquired a few American B24 bombers interned after forced landings following the Ploesti raid of 1943.

Due to expansion, the Air Force became an independent service in 1944. After the war, Turkey purchased surplus Spitfires, Mosquitoes and Beaufighters before the United States became a major supplier of modern aircraft.

In 1946, after the "Truman Doctrine" was declared, the Joint American Mission for Aid to Turkey was established in Ankara. In 1948, Turkey received P-47, B-26 and C-47 aircraft with training, supply and maintenance systems. In 1951, Turkey entered the jet age with the F-84.

In the following year, Turkey joined NATO and the first female pilot in NATO was a Turk. Other American aircraft flown by the Turkish Air Force include the T-33, F-86, F-100, F-102, F-104, F-4, F-5, F-16, KC-135R and C-130. The TAF saw very limited action in the Cyprus police operation of 1964, but was extensively involved in the Cyprus operation of 1974. Since becoming a member of NATO, the TAF has undergone many changes. It's composed of the First Air Force at Eskisehir, the Second
Air Force at Diyarbakir, the Air Training Command headquartered at Izmir and the Air Logistics Command at Ankara.

Retrieved from: http://www.incirlik.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5470

British Army Structure

The British Army consists of the General Staff and the deployable Field Army and the Regional Forces that support them, as well as Joint elements that work with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force. The Army carries out tasks given to it by the democratically elected Government of the

United Kingdom (UK).

Its primary task is to help defend the interests of the UK, which consists of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This may involve service overseas as part of a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) force or any other multi-national deployment. Soldiers may also be deployed on United Nations (UN) operations and used to help in other emergencies.

The regimental system
The increasing demands of imperial expansion together with inefficiencies highlighted during the Napoleonic Wars led to the Cardwell and Childers Reforms of the late 19th century. These gave the British Army its modern shape, and defined its regimental system. The Haldane Reforms of 1907, formally created the Territorial Force which still exists as the Army's volunteer reserve component.

Command structure
The command structure is hierarchical with divisions and brigades responsible for administering groupings of smaller units. Major Units are regiment or battalion-sized with minor units being smaller, either company sized sub-units or platoons. All units within the service are either Regular (full-time) or Territorial Army (part-time), or a combination with sub-units of each type.

Naming conventionsUnit names differ for historical reasons. An infantry regiment is an administrative and ceremonial organisation only and may include several battalions. An infantry battalion is equivalent to a cavalry regiment.  For operational tasks a battle group will be formed around a combat unit, supported by units or sub-units from other areas. Such an example would be a squadron of tanks attached to an armoured infantry battle group, together with a reconnaissance troop, artillery battery and engineering support.

Territorial Army and Reserves
The Territorial Army, or TA as it is usually known, is part of Britain's reserve land forces. Together with the Regular Reserve the TA provides support to the Regular Army at home and overseas.

Retrieved from: http://www.army.mod.uk/structure/structure.aspx

 

Chinese Military Aircrafts

	Past	Present	Future
Bomber / Attacker	Hong-5 Tu-4 Tu-2	Hong-6 JianHong-7 Qiang-5
Fighter	Jian-6 Jian-5 MiG-17 MiG-15	Su-30 Su-27 Jian-11 Jian-10 FC-1/JF-17 Jian-8II Jian-8 Jian-7	J-XX Jian-10B Jian-8T
Transport / Tanker	Tu-154M An-24/26/30 An-12	IL-76MD Hong-6U Yun-8 Yun-7 Yun-12 Yun-5 Boeing 737 CRJ-200/700 Yak-42	Large transport IL-78 Yun-9
Special Purposes	JianZhen-6 HongDian-5 HongZhen-5	KongJing-2000 Yun-8 AEW Yun-8/GaoXin 1 Yun-8/GaoXin 2 Yun-8/GaoXin 3 Yun-8/GaoXin 4 Yun-8/GaoXin 7 Boeing 737 Learjet 35 JianZhen-8 Y-8J Y-8 MPA ShuiHong-5	KJ-200/GaoXin 5 Yun-8/Gaoxin 6
Trainer		JiaoLian-8 JianJiao-7 JianJiao-6 JianJiao-5 YunJiao-7 ChuJiao-6	L-7 L-15 JiaoLian-9
Helicopter	Mi-6 Zhi-5 SA 316 Alouette III	Mi-17/171 S-70C Black Hawk Ka-28 HC-120 Zhi-11 Zhi-10 Zhi-9W/WA/WE Zhi-9C Zhi-9 AS 565 Panther Zhi-8 SA 321 Super Frelon	Zhi-15
UAV		ChangKong-1 WuZhen-5 Harpy Jian-7 Drone ASN-206/207 ASN-104/105 ASN-15 Ba-9 Ba-5 (J-5) Ba-2	Xianglong

Retrieved from: http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/aircraft.asp